Literacy and Development: A Global Perspective

 

Kavita Roy¹, Khritish Swargiary²

Guest Faculty, Department of Education, Bongaigaon College, India¹.

Research Assistant, EdTech Research Association, India².

 

Abstract: This study employed a research design centered on the analysis and review of data concerning literacy rates sourced from reputable databases and organizations. The primary sources of data included the 2024 statistics provided by the World Population Review, the literacy rates dataset from the CIA World Factbook, and the Adult Literacy Rates dataset from the World Bank. Additionally, data on adult literacy rates for the year 2019 were extracted from Our World in Data for comparative analysis. The research tools utilized in this study comprised data extraction techniques, statistical analysis software, and qualitative coding methods. The data extraction process involved retrieving relevant information on literacy rates, focusing specifically on the adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) across different countries. Statistical analysis software was then used to organize and analyse the extracted data, enabling the generation of descriptive statistics and visual representations such as charts and graphs. Moreover, qualitative coding methods were employed to categorize and interpret the findings, facilitating a deeper understanding of the trends and patterns observed in the data. The research procedure involved several sequential steps. Initially, data from the selected sources were collected and compiled into a consolidated dataset. Subsequently, the data were cleaned and processed to ensure accuracy and consistency. Descriptive statistics, including mean, median, and standard deviation, were calculated to summarize the central tendencies and variability of the literacy rates across countries. Additionally, comparative analyses were conducted to examine trends over time and identify notable variations among regions and income groups. Qualitative coding techniques were then applied to identify common themes and patterns emerging from the data. Finally, the findings were synthesized and interpreted to draw meaningful conclusions regarding the relationship between literacy rates and socio-economic development. Overall, this research methodology provided a systematic and rigorous approach to analysing and reviewing data on literacy rates, enabling insights into the status and trends of literacy across different countries and regions. This study explored the relationship between literacy rates, economic development, and Human Development Index (HDI) scores across nations worldwide. Analysing data from various countries revealed a strong correlation between higher literacy rates and increased economic prosperity, as evidenced by elevated HDI scores. Nations with higher literacy rates tended to exhibit greater economic growth and human well-being, emphasizing the critical role of education in driving socio-economic progress. Moreover, gender disparities in literacy rates highlighted the importance of promoting gender-inclusive education policies for fostering equitable development. Overall, the findings underscored the significance of investing in education to achieve sustainable and inclusive economic development on a global scale.

 

Keywords: Literacy rates, Economic development, Human Development Index (HDI), Gender disparities, Education investment.

INTRODUCTION

 

The term literacy defined by the World Population Review (2024) as the ability to read and write, cannot be overstated in shaping individual career trajectories and societal development. It serves as a pivotal determinant, with proficient literacy opening a spectrum of opportunities ranging from highly skilled, well-paying professions to basic employment. Conversely, individuals lacking literacy skills face severe limitations in accessing even entry-level jobs. Globally, the literacy rate for individuals aged 15 and above averages at 86.3%, with males slightly outpacing females at 90% compared to 82.7%. However, considerable disparities exist among countries, with developed nations consistently exhibiting adult literacy rates of 96% or higher, while the least developed countries struggle with an average literacy rate of merely 65%. These discrepancies stem from varied reporting practices and definitions of literacy across nations. The classification of countries into developed and developing hinges on comprehensive assessments like the Human Development Index (HDI), which considers factors such as GDP per capita, life expectancy, and literacy rates. Countries scoring between 0.800 and 1.000 are termed developed, while those below are deemed developing, least-developed, or underdeveloped. For instance, Switzerland, Norway, and Iceland top the list of developed nations based on the 2021 HDI rankings, showcasing their advanced economies and infrastructure. Conversely, least developed countries (LDCs), primarily in Africa, face substantial impediments to sustainable economic growth, necessitating support in areas such as agriculture, education, and industry. Despite efforts by aid organizations and initiatives like those by the United Nations, progress towards graduation from the LDC category remains slow, exacerbated by challenges like the COVID-19 pandemic. Similarly, underdeveloped countries characterized by chronic poverty and inadequate infrastructure also grapple with low literacy rates. Efforts by global organizations aim to integrate these nations into the global economy, fostering economic growth and technological advancement. The correlation between literacy and poverty is evident, with education accessibility significantly impacting poverty rates, especially in regions like South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, gender disparities persist, with a majority of illiterate adults being female. Literacy serves as a cornerstone for individual and societal development, enabling critical thinking, problem-solving, and socio-economic advancement. Economically, investments in education yield substantial returns, driving higher productivity and fostering national development. China's remarkable economic transformation underscores the pivotal role of literacy in economic progress, emphasizing the necessity of eradicating illiteracy for poverty alleviation and economic prosperity.

 

The study conducted by Yeoh, Emile Kok-Kheng, and Chu, Kah-Mun further explores the intricate relationship between education, literacy, and economic development, particularly in the context of contemporary China. Education's impact on economic prosperity is multifaceted, directly influencing employment rates, productivity, labor force composition, and mobility. Recognizing the pivotal role of literacy, the Chinese government embarked on educational reforms in the late 1980s to bolster economic advancement, emphasizing the importance of education in fostering equity and nurturing innovation. China's economic success, catalysed by its "openness and reform" policies, has propelled it to become the world's second-largest economy. However, regional disparities persist, necessitating continued investment in education as a tool for poverty alleviation and social cohesion. Despite significant strides, challenges such as ethnic divisions and class disparities remain, requiring both legislative interventions and societal commitment to equity and inclusivity. Education remains central to China's quest for sustained economic prosperity and social harmony, with legislative measures mandating compulsory education and increased funding underscoring its commitment to cultivating a knowledgeable workforce. Challenges notwithstanding, China's active participation in international forums on education reflects its global commitment to fostering educational excellence and inclusivity.  Additionally, the study by Mitra and Rout (2018) delves into the complex relationship between education and economic development, highlighting their positive correlation and mutual reinforcement. Education plays a crucial role in achieving social betterment and economic development by unleashing the potential talent of individuals. Investment in human capital, represented by education, significantly influences national income and promotes economic growth by improving productivity, fostering innovation, and enhancing workforce adaptability. Moreover, education contributes to reducing societal and economic disparities by altering saving patterns, capital formation, and individual incomes, thereby promoting economic equality and social justice. Furthermore, education facilitates technological advancements and enhances a nation's competitiveness in the global economy by preparing individuals to embrace advanced technologies and creating job opportunities demanded by modern industries. In conclusion, the study underscores the imperative of investing in education as a strategic tool for achieving sustainable development and prosperity, emphasizing its role in driving economic growth, reducing inequalities, alleviating poverty, and fostering technological advancements.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

 

The study conducted by Jonathan Rothwell, Ph.D., in collaboration with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy and Gallup, shed light on the significant economic repercussions of low adult literacy rates in the United States. Released on September 8, 2020, the study revealed alarming statistics, indicating that the nation could have been losing up to $2.2 trillion annually due to low adult literacy rates. This staggering figure underscored the critical importance of addressing the literacy crisis, which affected more than half of U.S. adults aged 16 to 74 years old, as reported by the U.S. Department of Education. The study emphasized that literacy was not merely a matter of reading and writing but was intricately linked to various aspects of societal well-being and economic prosperity. Literacy was associated with better health outcomes, increased civic engagement, and higher earnings in the labor market. However, the prevalence of low literacy levels hampered millions of adults from fully participating in society, perpetuating cycles of poverty, poor health, and low educational attainment across generations. Dr. Rothwell, the principal economist at Gallup, highlighted the urgency of addressing the literacy crisis, especially in the context of ongoing challenges such as income inequality and the COVID-19 pandemic. He emphasized that eradicating illiteracy would not only lead to substantial progress in reducing inequality but also provide a significant boost to local and regional economies throughout the country. Key findings from the study underscored the economic benefits of improving adult literacy levels. Bringing all adults to the equivalent of a sixth-grade reading level could have generated an additional $2.2 trillion, equivalent to 10% of the GDP, annually for the country. Additionally, income levels were strongly correlated with literacy levels, with adults reading at a sixth-grade level earning significantly higher incomes compared to those with lower literacy levels. Moreover, the study highlighted the potential economic gains in large metropolitan areas, with cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Dallas standing to benefit significantly from improvements in adult literacy rates. In conclusion, the study underscored the critical importance of investing in adult literacy as a means to strengthen the nation's economy and address long-standing challenges such as income inequality. By prioritizing literacy initiatives and ensuring that everyone had the opportunity to fully participate in society, the United States could have unlocked substantial economic potential and fostered a more equitable and prosperous future for all its citizens.

 

In sync with the aforementioned study, our further research focused on analysing and reviewing data concerning literacy rates worldwide for the year 2024 and its correlation with economic development. Employing a research design centered on data analysis and review, this study utilized data from reputable sources such as the World Population Review, CIA World Factbook, World Bank, and Our World in Data. The methodology involved data extraction, statistical analysis, and qualitative coding techniques. The data extraction process involved collecting relevant information on literacy rates, specifically focusing on adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) across different countries. Statistical analysis software was then utilized to organize, analyse, and generate descriptive statistics and visual representations of the data. Qualitative coding methods were applied to identify common themes and patterns, facilitating a deeper understanding of literacy trends and their implications for socio-economic development. The research procedure comprised sequential steps, including data collection, cleaning, processing, and analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated to summarize literacy rates' central tendencies and variability across countries, while comparative analyses examined trends over time and variations among regions and income groups. Through this systematic approach, the study aimed to provide insights into the status and trends of literacy worldwide and its impact on economic development. By understanding the relationship between literacy rates and socio-economic indicators, policymakers and stakeholders could devise targeted interventions to promote literacy and foster sustainable development globally.

 

METHODOLOGY

 

This study employed a research design centered on the analysis and review of data concerning literacy rates sourced from reputable databases and organizations. The primary sources of data included the 2024 statistics provided by the World Population Review, the literacy rates dataset from the CIA World Factbook, and the Adult Literacy Rates dataset from the World Bank. Additionally, data on adult literacy rates for the year 2019 were extracted from Our World in Data for comparative analysis. The research tools utilized in this study comprised data extraction techniques, statistical analysis software, and qualitative coding methods. The data extraction process involved retrieving relevant information on literacy rates, focusing specifically on the adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) across different countries. Statistical analysis software was then used to organize and analyse the extracted data, enabling the generation of descriptive statistics and visual representations such as charts and graphs. Moreover, qualitative coding methods were employed to categorize and interpret the findings, facilitating a deeper understanding of the trends and patterns observed in the data. The research procedure involved several sequential steps. Initially, data from the selected sources were collected and compiled into a consolidated dataset. Subsequently, the data were cleaned and processed to ensure accuracy and consistency. Descriptive statistics, including mean, median, and standard deviation, were calculated to summarize the central tendencies and variability of the literacy rates across countries. Additionally, comparative analyses were conducted to examine trends over time and identify notable variations among regions and income groups. Qualitative coding techniques were then applied to identify common themes and patterns emerging from the data. Finally, the findings were synthesized and interpreted to draw meaningful conclusions regarding the relationship between literacy rates and socio-economic development. Overall, this research methodology provided a systematic and rigorous approach to analysing and reviewing data on literacy rates, enabling insights into the status and trends of literacy across different countries and regions.

 

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

 

The data provided by the World Population Review (2024) paints a vivid picture of global literacy rates, showcasing a diverse landscape characterized by varying levels of educational attainment across countries and genders. Delving into Chart 1, one observes a wide spectrum of literacy rates, ranging from the strikingly low 27% in Chad to the exemplary 100% literacy achieved by countries like Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and others. These figures, now etched in the historical record, depict a world where access to education has been both a triumph and a challenge. Averaging at approximately 83.41%, the global literacy rate indicates a significant portion of the population being able to read and write. However, even as this average suggests progress, it also underscores the persistent gaps in educational opportunities that persist across regions and nations. Transitioning to Chart 2 and Chart 3, the gender dimension of literacy becomes evident. Historically, gender disparities in education have been profound, with females often facing systemic barriers to learning. In many countries, such as Afghanistan, the literacy rate for females trails significantly behind that of males. In the case of Afghanistan, the recorded female literacy rate stands at a mere 22.6%, starkly contrasting with the male literacy rate of 52.1%. These figures reflect an era when societal norms and cultural expectations stifled the educational aspirations of women, relegating them to the margins of society. Despite these challenges, there are glimmers of progress in some regions, where efforts to promote gender equality in education have begun to narrow the gap between male and female literacy rates. Turning to Chart 4, one traverses through time, navigating the ebbs and flows of educational progress. The availability of data, varied across countries and years, offers a glimpse into the evolving narrative of global literacy. Over time, some countries have made significant strides in enhancing literacy rates, driven by concerted efforts to expand access to education and improve the quality of learning. Yet, alongside these success stories, there exist tales of stagnation and decline, fueled by factors such as political upheaval, conflict, and economic instability. These historical fluctuations underscore the fragility of educational gains and the imperative of sustained investment in human capital. In retrospect, the journey toward universal literacy has been marked by triumphs and tribulations, progress and setbacks. From the early days of educational enlightenment to the present era of digital literacy, the quest for knowledge has remained a timeless pursuit. As we reflect on the data provided, we are reminded of the enduring importance of education as a catalyst for social progress and human flourishing. In the annals of history, the story of literacy is not merely a statistical record but a testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the transformative power of learning.

 

In the analysis of Human Development Index (HDI) trends from 2019 to 2021, it becomes evident that a thorough examination of HDI across selected countries unveils a dynamic landscape of developmental trajectories. Chart 5, outlining HDI trends for the year 2021, highlights notable observations such as the United States maintaining a high HDI of 0.921, indicating robust overall development, and Germany exhibiting a commendable HDI of 0.942, signaling consistently high levels of human development. Conversely, countries like Thailand (0.8) and Russia (0.829) displayed variations in their HDI scores, suggesting diverse developmental paths. Transitioning to Chart 6, depicting HDI scores for 2020, slight fluctuations are noted, with the United States experiencing a marginal decline to 0.92, and Germany's HDI decreasing slightly to 0.944. However, countries like Canada (0.931) and Australia (0.947) showed improvements, underscoring the dynamic nature of human development influenced by multifaceted factors. Furthermore, Chart 7 illustrates the HDI for 2019, revealing the starting points of these trends, with the United States beginning the period with an HDI of 0.93 and Germany with 0.948. Throughout the three years, the HDI scores exhibit nuanced changes, emphasizing the importance of examining trends over multiple years to discern meaningful patterns. The analysis underscores the necessity for ongoing policy evaluation and adaptation to address the complexities of human development, with variations in healthcare, education, and economic stability contributing to national variances. By closely monitoring HDI trends and identifying areas for improvement, governments and policymakers can implement targeted policies to enhance specific aspects of human development and promote sustainable and inclusive growth. Additionally, the inclusion of the world's HDI average in the analysis provides context for assessing individual country performances relative to global benchmarks, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of developmental progress and challenges.

 

The comparison between literacy rates and Human Development Index (HDI) scores across nations provided valuable insights into the intricate interplay between education and socio-economic development. At the forefront of this analysis was the United States, which boasted a 100% literacy rate and consistently high HDI scores ranging from 0.92 to 0.93 over the past three years. This trend underscored the positive correlation between literacy and overall development, indicating that countries with higher literacy rates tended to achieve higher levels of human development. Conversely, countries grappling with lower literacy rates often faced challenges in advancing their socio-economic agendas. Nations like Pakistan and Nigeria, where literacy rates hovered around 60%, exhibited HDI scores below the global average. This disparity highlighted the detrimental impact of low literacy rates on key development indicators, including access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities. Furthermore, the gender dimension of literacy rates revealed additional nuances in the relationship between education and development. Countries like Afghanistan and India struggled with significant gender gaps in literacy rates, hindering progress towards gender equality and overall development. Despite efforts to promote education for all, disparities persisted, particularly in regions where cultural norms and socio-economic factors perpetuated inequalities in access to education. However, there were success stories where countries leveraged investments in education to drive socio-economic advancement. China, with a literacy rate of 97%, made remarkable strides in improving human development outcomes, reflected in its consistently high HDI scores. Similarly, Brazil and Indonesia, with relatively high literacy rates, experienced significant improvements in their HDI scores over time, indicating positive development trajectories. In conclusion, the data on literacy rates and HDI scores underscored the critical role of education as a catalyst for socio-economic progress. To address disparities and promote inclusive development, countries needed to prioritize investments in education, particularly focusing on ensuring universal access to quality education and addressing gender disparities in literacy. By doing so, nations could unlock the full potential of their populations and pave the way for sustainable and equitable development.

 

Suggestions

In the exploration of human development, a profound correlation between literacy gains and various dimensions of human interaction emerged. The link between literacy and human-to-human interactions revealed a striking enhancement in productivity and the exploration of new avenues. Studies by Oxenham et al. (2002) highlighted a consensus across multiple countries that completion of literacy courses instilled confidence and initiative among participants, fostering livelihood development. Transitioning to the human-natural interface, literacy's potential to bolster advocacy for natural assets and heighten awareness of health threats became evident, as highlighted by Oxenham and Aoki (1999). Moreover, in the human-produced dimension, literacy played a pivotal role in enhancing the safe and efficient use of equipment, as evidenced by the case of Nigerian car mechanics (DFID, 2002). Meanwhile, in the human-financial sphere, literacy paved the way for improved access to financial instruments and bolstered confidence in investment decisions (Diagne and Oxenham, undated). The social dimension of literacy revealed its capacity to foster greater equality and empowerment, as illustrated by the experiences of participants in adult literacy programs (Okech et al., 1999). Moving into the natural realm, literacy emerged as a catalyst for sustainable stewardship, aiding in the selection of appropriate technologies for environmental conservation (DFID, 2002). This was echoed in examples from Uganda and Sri Lanka, where literacy interventions yielded tangible benefits in environmental sustainability (Katahoire, 2001; Archer and Cottingham, 1996). In the realm of technological innovation and production, literacy facilitated the recording of experiments and specifications, as evidenced by studies in Kenya and Tanzania (Carron et al., 1989; Carr-Hill et al., 1991). Moreover, literacy's role in financial management and social empowerment was underscored by examples of collective investment and micro-credit programs (Archer and Cottingham, 1996; Oxenham et al., 2001). The social dimension of literacy was further elucidated through examples of increased cooperation and advocacy, as seen in the experiences of participants in various programs (Diagne and Oxenham, undated; Ashe and Parrott, 2001). These findings underscored the multifaceted impact of literacy on human development, highlighting its transformative potential across diverse domains.

 

In the comprehensive exploration of the impact of literacy on economic growth, Foster and Rosenzweig's study from 1996 delves into the dynamics of India during the Green Revolution. They assert that regions with the highest average schooling attainment experienced the greatest benefits from the introduction of innovative farming technologies, with particularly noteworthy returns observed at the primary level. The study suggests that literacy, by enhancing aggregate economic growth, can potentially provide households with improved access to social wealth. However, it raises a cautionary note, pointing out that growth literature tends to prioritize national support systems, such as higher per capita income countries offering better social security schemes. This focus might overshadow the nuanced dynamics of social wealth at local levels, which could even be adversely affected by the social upheaval associated with economic modernization. Looking to a broader perspective, examining the potential impacts of literacy on economic growth at the country or regional levels might be considered somewhat simplistic in understanding the overall benefits of literacy on people's livelihoods. Yet, adopting a larger-scale approach has its merits for policymakers and researchers, offering insights into how literacy could potentially elevate government revenues. This section elaborates on the growth theories that underpin these studies, analysing their intersection with the livelihoods framework and presenting key findings from the empirical growth literature. Economic growth theories, whether embedded in the neoclassical tradition like the Solow model or the more contemporary endogenous growth school, consistently posit a pivotal role for education. The "augmented Solow" model proposed by Mankiw, Romer, and Weil in 1990 incorporates education as a form of capital in the production function. In this model, an increase in the stock of literate adults is expected to yield a one-off increase in a country's output per worker, albeit with no long-term impact on economic growth. Contrastingly, endogenous growth theories focus on the dynamic, long-run relationship between education and technological progress, suggesting that a more educated population can lead to higher growth of output per worker by fostering innovation and technological adoption. Transitioning to historical perspectives, Adelman and Morris, in 1968, align with the post-WW2 modernization spirit, incorporating literacy as an outcome of primary schooling in their multi-variable econometric model. They claim to identify a significant role for literacy as a prerequisite for acquiring more productive skills and embracing attitudinal changes favoring market forces. The subsequent paragraphs provide a kaleidoscope of insights from diverse studies conducted by Barro (1991), Lau, Jamison, and Louat (1991), Dasgupta and Weale (1992), Bashir and Darrat (1994), Benhabib and Spiegel (1994), Pritchett (1996), Sachs and Warner (1997), the IALS Final Report (OECD / Statistics Canada, 2000), Hanushek and Kimko (2000), Loening (2002), Naudé (2004), and Coulombe, Tremblay, and Marchand (2004). Each study, with its unique focus and methodology, contributes to the complex narrative surrounding the macroeconomic effects of literacy and closely associated years of schooling. However, as the literature unfolds, it becomes evident that the macroeconomic effects of literacy present a mixed picture, especially when considering concerns about data mining and the econometrics methodology underlying regression exercises. Measurement errors and the bidirectional relationship between educational attainment and economic growth pose persistent challenges. Scholars, such as Krueger and Lindahl (2000), argue for a more focused approach, perhaps through tightly specified experiments. An exemplary study in this vein is Anh and Meyer's (1999) investigation of joint venture investment in Vietnam, illustrating a specific channel through which literacy might influence economic growth by attracting foreign

 

The economic implications of literacy had been extensively explored over the years, with studies such as that by Boissiere et al (1985) shedding light on the direct impact of cognitive skills derived from literacy. Boissiere et al's research in Kenya and Tanzania had revealed significant returns to literacy and numeracy, highlighting these dimensions of human capital as pivotal factors in enhancing earning potentials. However, the study had also underscored the importance of distinguishing between reasoning ability, years of education, and cognitive skills in assessing their respective impacts on earnings. While the direct returns to reasoning ability were found to be relatively small, the returns to literacy and numeracy had been notably large, emphasizing the economic value of these skills in the labor market (Boissiere et al, 1985: 1028). Expanding on this foundation, subsequent research had delved into various facets of literacy and its economic ramifications. Psacharapoulos and Patrinos (2002) had provided international averages for the private and social returns to primary schooling, highlighting the substantial returns associated with investing in primary education, particularly in low-income countries. However, Bennell (1996) had cautioned against overestimating the returns to education, pointing out methodological flaws and the need to consider evolving economic contexts, particularly in regions like sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, the dynamics of education and its economic outcomes had been influenced by multifaceted factors, including gender disparities and macroeconomic conditions. Blunch and Verner (1999) had argued for the significance of functional literacy in accessing the labor market, particularly in contexts like Ghana, where literacy had served as a prerequisite for employment. Similarly, the debate surrounding adult literacy programs, as elucidated by Oxenham (2003), had underscored the nuanced considerations in evaluating the returns on such investments compared to traditional schooling. Moreover, the discussion had extended beyond individual earnings to encompass broader societal implications. Harmon, Oosterbeek, and Walker (2003) had emphasized the overall positive impact of education on economic prosperity, while also acknowledging the complexities inherent in assessing social returns. The interplay between literacy and household dynamics, as evidenced by studies such as Basu, Narayan, and Ravallion (1999) and Gibson (2001), had underscored the interconnectedness of human and social wealth. Furthermore, the language in which literacy had been attained had added another layer of complexity to the discourse. Carnevale et al (2001) had highlighted the economic significance of literacy in the dominant language of a region, emphasizing its role in enhancing wage rates. This discussion had naturally led to considerations of social literacies and broader capabilities beyond mere literacy skills. In essence, the economic returns to literacy had been multifaceted and contingent upon a myriad of factors, ranging from individual cognitive skills to broader societal contexts. As we navigated the complexities of education policy and investment, it had become imperative to adopt a nuanced understanding that accounted for the diverse pathways through which literacy had influenced economic outcomes.

 

Related Works

The study "Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006" provided a comprehensive analysis of the economic benefits associated with increasing adult literacy, with a primary focus on developing countries. They introduced a framework to understand the various ways in which literacy could impact livelihoods and reviewed recent interventions in adult literacy and basic education, highlighting the lack of formal economic analysis to support claims of economic benefits. Despite numerous assertions regarding the economic advantages of literacy interventions, the report identified a lack of rigorous measurement of outputs and outcomes, as well as a failure to consider opportunity costs. It examined findings from cross-country growth studies and microeconomic returns to education literature, emphasizing the dependency of literacy benefits on broader economic contexts. While acknowledging the potential benefits to individuals and households, the report also discussed conceptual shortcomings in conventional economic analysis and proposed a capabilities approach inspired by Amartya Sen's work as a path forward for future research. Ultimately, the report underscored the need for systematic monitoring and evaluation of literacy interventions to draw more specific conclusions. Similarly, the study by Yeoh, Emile Kok-Kheng, and Chu, Kah-Mun delved into the role of literacy in the economic development of contemporary China. It highlighted traditional conceptualizations of literacy as crucial for national development, emphasizing its role in spreading awareness of rights, improving living standards, and facilitating access to employment and continuous learning opportunities. The paper employed a combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses to investigate the relationship between literacy and economic development across China's provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities. While identifying a significant relationship between literacy-related variables and economic development, the study also acknowledged disparities resulting from funding inequalities and governmental policies, particularly in underdeveloped regions. By comparing literacy rates across different regions, the paper aimed to elucidate their impact on the nation's overall development trajectory, ultimately affirming literacy as a key driver for China's progress.

 

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

 

Funding

Author(s) received no financial support for the research.

 

CONCLUSIONS

 

The comprehensive analysis of literacy rates and Human Development Index (HDI) scores across nations provided compelling evidence of the strong correlation between literacy, economic development, and overall socio-economic progress. The data revealed that countries with higher literacy rates tended to exhibit higher levels of economic development and human well-being, as reflected in their HDI scores. Firstly, nations with high literacy rates, such as the United States, Germany, and Japan, consistently demonstrated robust economic performance and elevated HDI scores. These countries had invested significantly in education, resulting in a skilled workforce, technological innovation, and higher productivity levels, all of which contributed to economic growth and societal advancement. Conversely, countries facing challenges in achieving universal literacy, particularly those with low literacy rates like Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria, often experienced stagnation in economic development and human progress. Low literacy rates limited individuals' access to education, employment opportunities, and participation in civic life, exacerbating poverty and inequality and hindering overall socio-economic advancement. Moreover, the data highlighted the gender dimension of literacy, with disparities in female literacy rates often translating into broader socio-economic inequalities. Nations that prioritized gender-inclusive education policies and initiatives, such as China and Brazil, demonstrated more significant strides in economic development and human well-being, underscoring the importance of gender equality in education for overall socio-economic progress. In conclusion, the data on literacy rates and HDI scores underscored the pivotal role of education as a driver of economic development and human flourishing. To foster inclusive and sustainable development worldwide, policymakers needed to prioritize investments in education, promote universal access to quality education, and address gender disparities in literacy. By doing so, nations could unlock the full potential of their populations, stimulate economic growth, and create more equitable and prosperous societies for all.

 

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APPENDIX

 

Country	Literacy Rate All Genders	Literacy Rate Female	Literacy Rate Male	Literacy Rate By Country Data Year
India	74	65.8	82.4	2018
China	97	95.2	98.5	2020
Indonesia	96	94.6	97.4	2020
Pakistan	58	46.5	69.3	2019
Nigeria	62	52.7	71.3	2018
Brazil	94	94.5	94.1	2021
Bangladesh	75	72	77.8	2020
Russia	100	99.7	99.7	2021
Ethiopia	52	44.4	57.2	2017
Mexico	95	94.5	96.1	2020
Philippines	96	96.9	95.7	2019
Egypt	75			2022
DR Congo	81			2022
Vietnam	96	94.6	97	2019
Iran	89	88.7	92.4	2021
Turkey	97	94.4	99.1	2019
Thailand	94	92.8	95.5	2021
Tanzania	82	78.2	85.5	2022
South Africa	90			2021
Italy	99	99	99.4	2018
Kenya	83	79.8	85.5	2022
Myanmar	89	86.3	92.4	2019
Colombia	96	95.9	95.4	2020
Uganda	81			2022
Sudan	61	56.1	65.4	2018
Spain	99	98	99	2020
Algeria	81	75.3	87.4	2018
Argentina	99	99.1	98.9	2018
Afghanistan	37	22.6	52.1	2021
Poland	100	99.8	99.8	2021
Morocco	77			2022
Ukraine	100	100	100	2021
Angola	72			2022
Saudi Arabia	98	96	98.6	2020
Uzbekistan	100	100	100	2022
Yemen	70	55	85.1	2015
Mozambique	63	53.8	74.1	2021
Ghana	80			2020
Peru	94	92	97	2020
Malaysia	95	93.6	96.2	2019
Nepal	71	63.3	81	2021
Madagascar	77	75.8	78.8	2022
Ivory Coast	90			2019
Venezuela	98	97.7	97.4	2022
Cameroon	78			2020
Niger	38			2022
Syria	86	81	91.7	2015
Mali	31			2020
Taiwan	99	97.3	99.7	2014
Burkina Faso	34			2022
Malawi	68			2022
Zambia	88			2020
Kazakhstan	100	99.7	99.8	2020
Chile	97	97	97.1	2022
Romania	99	98.7	99.1	2021
Chad	27	18.2	35.4	2022
Somalia	41			2022
Ecuador	94			2022
Guatemala	84	79.3	87.7	2022
Senegal	58			2022
Cambodia	84	79.8	88.4	2022
Zimbabwe	90	89.7	88.3	2022
Guinea	45	31.3	61.2	2021
Rwanda	76	73.3	78.7	2021
Benin	47			2022
Burundi	76			2022
Bolivia	94	94	94.9	2020
Tunisia	84			2022
Haiti	62	58.3	65.3	2016
Dominican Republic	95	95.3	95.1	2021
Jordan	98	98.4	98.7	2021
South Sudan	35	28.9	40.3	2018
Cuba	100	99.7	99.6	2021
Honduras	89	88.7	88.2	2019
Papua New Guinea	64	62.8	65.6	2015
Czech Republic	99	99	99	2011
Azerbaijan	100	99.7	99.9	2019
Tajikistan	100	99.7	99.8	2010
Greece	98	97.4	98.5	2018
Portugal	97	95.9	97.8	2021
Hungary	99	99.1	99.1	2021
United Arab Emirates	98	97.2	98.8	2022
Belarus	100	99.9	99.9	2019
Israel	92			1983
Togo	67	55.1	80	2019
Sierra Leone	49			2022
Laos	88			2022
Nicaragua	83	82.8	82.4	2015
Serbia	99	99.1	99.9	2019
Libya	91	85.6	96.7	2015
Paraguay	95	94.2	94.9	2020
Kyrgyzstan	100	99.5	99.7	2019
Bulgaria	98	98.2	98.7	2021
Turkmenistan	99	99.6	99.8	2005
El Salvador	90			2020
Republic of the Congo	81	75.4	85.9	2021
Singapore	97	96.1	98.9	2020
Central African Republic	37			2020
Liberia	48	34.1	62.7	2017
Costa Rica	98	98.1	98	2021
Lebanon	95	93.3	96.9	2019
Mauritania	67	62.2	71.8	2021
Oman	97	92.7	97	2022
Panama	96	95.4	98.8	2019
Kuwait	96	95.4	97.1	2020
Croatia	99	99.2	99.7	2021
Eritrea	77	68.9	84.4	2018
Georgia	100	99.7	99.6	2022
Mongolia	99	99.2	99.1	2020
Uruguay	99	99	98.5	2019
Moldova	100	99.5	99.7	2021
Puerto Rico	92	92.4	92.4	2021
Bosnia and Herzegovina	98	98.1	99.4	2022
Gambia	59			2022
Albania	99	98.2	98.7	2022
Jamaica	89	93.1	84	2015
Armenia	100	99.7	99.8	2020
Qatar	94	94.7	92.4	2017
Botswana	89	88.9	88	2015
Lithuania	100	99.8	99.8	2021
Namibia	92	92.3	90.6	2021
Gabon	86	84.7	86.2	2022
Lesotho	82			2022
Guinea-Bissau	54			2022
Slovenia	100	99.7	99.7	2001
North Macedonia	98	97.6	99.1	2012
Latvia	100	99.9	99.9	2021
Equatorial Guinea	95	93	97.4	2015
Trinidad and Tobago	98	98.7	99.2	2000
Bahrain	98	94.9	99.9	2018
Timor-Leste	70			2020
Estonia	100	99.9	99.9	2021
Mauritius	92	90.5	93.5	2021
Cyprus	99	99.2	99.6	2021
Eswatini	89			2020
Fiji	99	99.1	99.1	2018
Comoros	62	56.9	67	2022
Guyana	90			2022
Bhutan	72			2022
Solomon Islands	77			1999
Suriname	95	93.4	96.5	2021
Montenegro	99	98.5	99.4	2021
Cape Verde	91	87.4	94.2	2022
Malta	95	96.4	93.4	2021
Maldives	98	98.4	97.6	2021
Brunei	98	96.9	98.3	2021
Belize	81			2001
Vanuatu	89	88.4	89.8	2021
New Caledonia	97	96.5	97.3	2006
Barbados	100	99.6	99.6	2014
Sao Tome and Principe	94			2022
Samoa	99	99.3	99	2021
Guam	100	99.7	99.8	2000
Grenada	99	98.6	98.6	2014
Tonga	99	99.5	99.4	2021
Seychelles	96	96.4	95.4	2020
Aruba	98	97.8	97.8	2020
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	97			1980
Antigua and Barbuda	99	99.4	98.4	2001
Andorra	100	100	100	2016
Cayman Islands	99	99	98.7	2021
Greenland	100	100	100	2015
American Samoa	97			1980
Marshall Islands	98	98.2	98.3	2011
San Marino	100	99.9	99.9	2018
Palau	97	96.3	96.8	2015
World	83.40909	71.87541	79.1638

 

Country	Hdi 2021	Hdi 2020	Hdi 2019
United States	0.921	0.92	0.93
Russia	0.829	0.83	0.845
Japan	0.925	0.923	0.924
Turkey	0.838	0.833	0.842
Germany	0.942	0.944	0.948
Thailand	0.8	0.802	0.804
United Kingdom	0.929	0.924	0.935
France	0.903	0.898	0.905
Italy	0.895	0.889	0.897
South Korea	0.925	0.922	0.923
Spain	0.905	0.899	0.908
Argentina	0.842	0.84	0.852
Poland	0.876	0.876	0.881
Canada	0.936	0.931	0.937
Saudi Arabia	0.875	0.87	0.873
Malaysia	0.803	0.806	0.81
Australia	0.951	0.947	0.941
Kazakhstan	0.811	0.814	0.819
Chile	0.855	0.852	0.861
Romania	0.821	0.824	0.832
Netherlands	0.941	0.939	0.943
Belgium	0.937	0.928	0.936
Sweden	0.947	0.942	0.947
Czech Republic	0.889	0.892	0.897
Greece	0.887	0.886	0.889
Portugal	0.866	0.863	0.867
Hungary	0.846	0.849	0.853
United Arab Emirates	0.911	0.912	0.92
Belarus	0.808	0.807	0.817
Israel	0.919	0.917	0.921
Austria	0.916	0.913	0.919
Switzerland	0.962	0.956	0.962
Hong Kong	0.952	0.949	0.952
Serbia	0.802	0.804	0.811
Singapore	0.939	0.939	0.943
Denmark	0.948	0.947	0.946
Slovakia	0.848	0.857	0.862
Finland	0.94	0.938	0.939
Norway	0.961	0.959	0.961
New Zealand	0.937	0.936	0.937
Costa Rica	0.809	0.816	0.819
Ireland	0.945	0.943	0.942
Oman	0.816	0.827	0.839
Panama	0.805	0.801	0.817
Kuwait	0.831	0.822	0.839
Croatia	0.858	0.855	0.861
Georgia	0.802	0.802	0.81
Uruguay	0.809	0.821	0.821
Qatar	0.855	0.854	0.859
Lithuania	0.875	0.879	0.884
Slovenia	0.918	0.913	0.921
Latvia	0.863	0.871	0.871
Trinidad and Tobago	0.81	0.818	0.821
Bahrain	0.875	0.877	0.882
Estonia	0.89	0.892	0.896
Mauritius	0.802	0.804	0.817
Cyprus	0.896	0.894	0.897
Luxembourg	0.93	0.924	0.927
Montenegro	0.832	0.826	0.837
Malta	0.918	0.911	0.915
Brunei	0.829	0.83	0.83
Bahamas	0.812	0.815	0.816
Iceland	0.959	0.957	0.96
Andorra	0.858	0.848	0.873
Liechtenstein	0.935	0.933	0.94
San Marino	0.853	0.845	0.862
World	0.880652	0.879621	0.88553